Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Toefl Essay Topics Pdf

Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Toefl Essay Topics Pdf Gossip, Lies and Toefl Essay Topics Pdf As soon as you answer a question you cannot return to review it or change the solution. You will have to give reasons that support your choice. The decisions which people make quickly are always erroneous. Use particular reasons and examples to back up your answer. As with the rest of the things in life, practice is crucial! So it is reasonable learn how to make the most of the efficiency of each breath. Perhaps you can request assistance and explain difficoult situations online and you'll be able to acquire terrific advices, but I think there isn't anything comparable to face to face communication. The reader should ultimately be in a position to find the described image like they were looking at a painting or a photograph for the very first time. In the second part, you will be provided a card with a topic and a couple specific questions to deal with. Desire unit plan a little town. In order to turn your essay something a college application reviewer would want to read, look at writing about something you truly feel passionately about. A minumum of one question in every section has to be answered and one essay has to be written to make a score. Even in the event that you don't locate an appropriate quote, just attempt to inculcate a ll these points in your opening sentence. Paraphrasing implies retelling some points from the original source in your words, you need to demonstrate that you understood the material and not simply copy the info you hear or read. The topics is sufficient to purchase either a part of jewelry you enjoy or tickets to a concert you essay to attend. These topics might include the qualities of a superior neighbor, local topic. Used within this essay topics. Speaking Finally, the speaking section is going to be held on another day from the remainder of the test and in the existence of a trained interviewer. Tell our experts what kind of homework help on the internet you will need to get. The solution is dependent on what sorts of tests you excel at, in addition to where you want to apply. Decide on the test you think will be simpler that you finish. If you're the person who is preparing for IELTS test, can choose to find these classes. Scoring well in school exams don't decide your future, but if you prefer to attain high targets and a thriving life, you should think before it's too late. The student may also find important information regarding test centres and test updates. Every student demands help with homework from time to time. The Little-Known Secrets to Toefl Essay Topics Pdf Creative writing conqueror was made to hear that you are going to have toefl test. If you discover that the writer did not provide just what you expected, request a revision, and we'll make the corrections. In the end, it is possible to also practice writing about topics that don't have anything to do with the TOEFL. It is a fact that writing thing under strict deadlines is quite stressful and not quick. Learn all the advice you need to understand as a way to ace TOEFL Writing! The IELTS won't overlook bad grammar. The toefl exams to be able to master. Two questions will request that you summarize information from a brief conversation. User guide could not understand the best pdf. Is might be shown answers. Take a look at questions in the next four categories too, to be ready for all of the forms of TOEFL essays. An excellent prep book can be absolutely the most important study tool you use, and we've got information on all the very best TOEFL prep books you need to consider. For the Independent Writing task, you're obtain a question on a specific topic or issue. The next section has more tips about how to take advantage of official practice resources. Use specific information and examples to back up your answer. The urge to be part of business schools abroad won't be fulfilled without clearing GMAT. Enrolling into a college gives opportunity to fulfill new people from various regions, communities and perhaps even different nations. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about an approaching deadline. Some people think that university students should have to attend classes.

The Theory of Evolution - 754 Words

Running Head: EVOLUTION The Theory of Evolution By Student’s Name Name of University Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution has been a topic of controversy since it was promulgated in the late 1800s. Nonetheless, its tenets remain strong, with many modern day scientists making discoveries that support Darwin’s theories of evolution, natural selection, and survival of the fittest. In The Origin of Species, Darwin calls the process of natural selection or survival of the fittest, the preservation of favorable individual differences and variations, and the destruction of those, which are injurious (Darwin, 1901). Darwin’s theory of evolutionary change and process of natural selection surmises that variations exist in every†¦show more content†¦The theory of evolution will always be debated, but new scientific discoveries that support the theory cannot be disputed. Therefore, Darwin’s theory has stood the test of time, which is a great accomplishment in this ever-changing world of new discoveries and scientific innovations. References Abdul, P. (2005). Origin of genetic information and evolution of biological species. Islam Science, 3, 7-13. Beecher-Monas, E., Garcia-Rill, E. (2006). Genetic predictions of future dangerousness: Is there a blueprint for violence. Law and Contemporary Problems, 69, 301-310. Darwin, C. (1901). The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection: Or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. New York: P.F. Collier and Son. Griffiths, P. E. (1997). What emotions really are: The problem of psychological categories. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences. (1999). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Waters, R.H., Rethlingshafer, D.A., Caldwell, W.E. (1960). Principles of Comparative Psychology. New York:Show MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Evolution And Evolution1685 Words   |  7 Pages â€Æ' Since Charles Darwin suggested the theory of evolution by natural selection in this best-known work, On the Origin of Species, controversy has followed. As a (computer) scientist, this student has no personal problem with the theory of evolution. However, since the debate of whether or not evolution actually exists is still alive and well today, a brief exploration of the arguments against is not only interesting, but also increasingly necessary. Why is there such disparity over this topic overRead MoreEvolution And Theory Of Evolution2859 Words   |  12 Pages come up with a variety of theories to answer the age old question, â€Å"Where do we come from?† The theory of evolution is just one of the many theories written over the centuries that attempts to answer this question; however, it holds the distinction of being the only theory accepted as scientifically true in today’s world. This paper will discuss the theory of evolution in detail; topics addressed include defining the theory of evolution and explaining how the theory has evolved over time, as wellRead MoreThe Theories Of The And Evolution756 Words   |  4 Pagesexplained the concept of growth and evolution, Freud theorized explanations for our suppressed cognition, Archimedes ran out of a bathtub yelling Eureka once he established the concept of density, and many other renowned scientists provided substantial theories to explain common associations within everyday life. These brilliant researchers gave reason to the term â€Å"why†. They provoked curiosity, established ideologies, and generated scientific laws that define logic. Evolution, adaptation, and developmentRead MoreThe Theories Of The Theory Of Evolution1802 Words   |  8 Pagesproduced mankind. However, the philosophical theory of evolution has no solid evidence, whereas creation can be proven. Science is supposed to be based on observation, right? The best theories satisfy the test of experimentation. No one c an test if evolution happened. Non one can prove that evolution actually happened. But what evidence can we place against evolution? In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, introducing the theory of evolution. One hundred and fifty-six years laterRead MoreEvolution Versus Creation And The Theory Of Evolution1714 Words   |  7 PagesEvolution versus creation is one of the most controversial topics that have ever been exposed to the world. Scientist and creationist both argue that their perspective is more right than the other. In reality both sides don’t know the exact truth behind the creation of the world. Evolution is the process in which something changes into something different and typically resulting in it becoming more complex and better formed. Charles Darwin, an English naturalist and geologist, suggested a theoryRead MoreTheory of Evolution Essay1359 Words   |  6 Pagesso there was no need for evolution; hence, there was no sign of evolution from the beginning. Since sin came into the world, man has been deceived into thinking there is evolution. We are not talking abou t the theory of evolution that says man started from an amoeba or as an ape and eventually began to walk upright; not that evolution, but evolution in the sense of development. There are developments in the earth and therefore it can be considered as a form of evolution, but truly would it be classifiedRead MoreEvolution Of A Evolutionary Theory1500 Words   |  6 PagesEvolution is descent with modification, a phrase Darwin used in proposing the at Earth’s many species are descendants of ancestral species that were different The power of evolution as a unifying theory is its ability to explain and connect a vast array of observations about the living world. Aristotle believed that life forms could be arranged on a scale of increasing complexity. Each form of life, perfect and permanent, had its allotted space. Darwin argued that classification should be based onRead MoreThe Theory of Evolution Essay553 Words   |  3 PagesBiological evolution is the name for the changes in gene frequency in a population of a species from generation to generation. Evolution offers explanation to why species genetically change over years and the diversity of life on Earth. Although it is generally accepted by the scientific community, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution has been studied and debated for several decades. In 1859, Darwin published On The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolutionary thought which he supportedRead MoreThe Theory Of Biological Evolution1192 Words   |  5 PagesSocial Darwinism is defined as the application of the theory of biological evolution to human affairs. It was used to justify and clarify many notions of nationalism and imperialism. Science played a huge role in the coming about of this new discovery but in reality, the society shaped the science of what it was about. Charles Darwin was the root of new era and was profound to come up with the theory of evolution. His theory had become one the fundamental unifying principles of modern biology andRead MoreThe s Theory Of Evolution930 Words   |  4 Pages2005, somewhat re-invents the theory of evolution into what they call the Guinness theory. The Guinness theory is that man’s ascent from the slime has been leading him inevitably towards the enjoyment of a pint of their estimable product, as stated on www.newsletter.framestore.com. It is in my interpretation that the creators of the ad were using the logos appeal, in the sense that they were using the theory of evolution to present to the consumers that once the evolution reaches present time that humans

Natural Resource Requiring Intervention †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Natural Resource Requiring Private Intervention? Answer: Introduction To register success on a start-up project, it is essential to have the support of the government and legal authorities. Sadly many the public has developed a bad reputation related to government departments and authorities due to rampant instances of corruption in the past but today many governments are changing their system of governance. The government actually offers many opportunities to entrepreneurs but to exploit them the individual or business must approach the government or department and pursue the projects. ABC ALOE GEL will be heavily dependent on the government and legal authorities to execute its business plan(Auerswald, 2012, p. 56). This is due to ABC ALOE GEL having identified an area which the government is searching for investors and stakeholders from the private and corporate sector to invest towards and assist the government managing the resource. Government Owned Natural Resource Requiring Private Intervention One of the biggest mistakes young entrepreneurs do while planning to start up a new business is looking at what others are doing and attempting to follow the crowd. This is the wrong approach to business, and entrepreneurs should be able to research the market and identify products and services which offer high demand then research on ways they can be manufactured, produced and supplied to the consumer. Business ideas which already have many entrepreneurs pursuing them are likely to fail due to low profits and limited customers. Instead one can research on areas which governments are seeking investors. Those areas and resources are usually ignored which makes it easier to establish a business and register higher success and profits as compared to conventional businesses(Sterner Coria, 2013). In ABC ALOE GELs situation the main resource is wastelands which are abundantly available and most government and local authorities are willing to lease them out for free so as to get them rehab ilitated and productive. Such resources require to be exploited as the number of investors in the field is limited thus reducing completion on the business and allowing for freedom to expand rapidly without the requirement to invest heavily on a project(Barbier, 2007, p. 300). Aloe Vera is a drought resistant crop which makes it a versatile crop which can be cultivated on the arid land using minimal compost, manure, water and labour and still be able to register attractive harvests. Licencing and Legal Paper Work Its important for all businesses to first register themselves and has all required paper work in order before starting up its operations. This makes the business a registered entity with the government and makes it legal of the business to approach the government and legal authorities regarding different projects and concerns(Steingold, 2017). ABC ALOE GEL intends to present a wasteland rehabilitation proposal to the government which shall be evaluated and reviewed before acceptance but this will only be possible f the business is legally registered. While the business may be able to gain access to wastelands for free under lease agreements with the concerned government ministry, taxation will still comply once income from the project begins being generated. Business Registration The first license ABC ALOE GEL would require securing is the business registration certificate. This certificate is very easy to secure and purposely kept affordable for all businesses. In certain countries, it is free of charge and aimed at registering businesses so the government can census the number, type, and income generated by businesses in the economy. Trade licence ABC ALOE GEL would then require securing a trade license which is important as it authorizes the business to trade in specified products and services. This license helps identify specific products and services which he business deals in thus allowing the government inspectors to monitor and inspect the businesses operation to determine if they are conducting business under their registered domain or are indulging in the trade or other products or services which may not be legal or authorizes. Trade licenses can always be revised but this will require the authorized government officer from the concerned department to undertake an inspection and approve the trade license application based on certain trade licensing criteria and guideline. Horticultural Licence ABC ALOE GEL intends on cultivating Aloe Vera which falls under the horticultural farm produce and therefore requires the business to also apply and secure a horticultural license. This required for the concerned officer to visit and inspect the cultivated area and assess the approached used to cultivate. This is also important as this would be a wasteland rehabilitation project thus the officer would require preparing a progress report which shall be monitored by the wasteland management authority who will report the projects progress. The inspection also evolutions and monitors the use of harmful and toxic chemicals which may be harmful the flora and fauna in the surrounding areas as well as the underground waterbed. Pollution Management Certification Pollution has become a major concern in the 21st century and ABC ALOE GEL will also have to comply with pollution management norms and guidelines. This requires for ABC ALOE GEL to identify and manage different environmental pollutants that may be generated on the project and ensure they have been properly disposed of. Petroleum products, polythene bags, compost, and fertilizer is all pollutants which would all require proper management to avoid damaging the environment further. Processing and Packaging Licencing To maximize profits ABC ALOE GEL would also be processing the aloe and packaging the gel for sale which would require the business to obtain the relevant processing and packaging licenses. Licencing certifies that ABC ALOE GEL has authorized machinery and technologies to process and package the Aloe gel while maintaining high standards. It also helps deliver assurance that ABC ALOE GEL is abiding by processing and packaging norms related to quality, measurement, storage, and labelling during the packaging process. Health and Safety Licences ABC ALOE GEL must comply with health and safety norms which ensure their employees and customers safety while working with or using the products. Hazards and risk management, health awareness and safety guidelines must all be followed making it important for ABC ALOE GEL to also get a Health and Safety inspection and license approvals so as to ensure smooth operations. Transport Licencing Once processed the finished aloe gel would also require being transported to the consumer, the transportation procedure can undertake by either ABC ALOE GEL or the customer. In situations where ABC ALOE GEL undertakes the transportation process, they would require having the relevant product movement permits and other applicable licenses to transport the gel. Utilize Government Department, Facilities, and Utilities Most governments have dedicated staff manning various departments scattering to different needs and operations(Georgopoulos, Hoekman, Mavroidis, 2017). ABC ALOE GEL must utilize and maintain communication and interactions with the entire department so as to improve their operations and performance. Ministry of Land and Natural resources One of the primary ministries and departments ABC ALOE GEL would be dealing with is the Ministry of Land and Natural resources due to the project intending to utilize wastelands. This would require the Managing Director to prepare a proposal and meet the concerned officials related to the wasteland reclamation proposal. ABC ALOE GEL will need to make a proposal and approach the ministry as well as report to the concerned department and officials regarding the set project goals and achievement throughout the entire lease period. This would also include applications of additional wasteland lease to expand the businesses operations making it the most important government department ABC ALOE GEL must retain communication and interactions with throughout the project Ministry of Agriculture The ministry of agriculture is another important department which ABC ALOE GEL would require to maintain constant communication with throughout the project. This is due to the ministry needing to evaluate and provide important insight and advice related to the aloe Vela plantations. It also allows the officials to study, research and monitor the project thus developing new agricultural approaches which can be communicated to farmers with regard to wasteland management and Aloe Vera farming. Revenue and Tax Department ABC ALOE GEL must also maintain close communication with the ministry of revenue and taxation. ABC ALOE GEL must be able to be accountable for income generated from the project and pay the relevant taxes. Other Government Departments and Facilities ABC ALOE GEL must be able to communicate and interact with all concerned department as each will have some connection to the business and project. All formalities and paperwork must be completed which would ensure ABC ALOE GEL operations are known and recognized by most government departments and officials. Conclusion For any business to achieve success and smooth operations it is critical that the business maintain a close relationship with government authorities and legal requirements. Governments institutions remain the cornerstone for every business thus it is vital that government ministries and department are directly involved in every project. It is also critical to ensure all government norms are addressed which makes the business legal and protected from nepotism which allows the business to operate and function freely and grow rapidly. References Auerswald, P. (2012). The Coming Prosperity: How Entrepreneurs Are Transforming the Global Economy. New York: Oxford University Press. Barbier, E. (2007). Natural Resources and Economic Development. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Georgopoulos, A., Hoekman, B., Mavroidis, P. (2017). The Internationalization of Government Procurement Regulation. New York: Oxford University Press. Steingold, F. (2017). Legal Guide for Starting Running a Small Business. Nolo. Sterner, T., Coria, J. (2013). Policy Instruments for Environmental and Natural Resource Management. Oxon: Routledge.

What is popular culture Essay Example For Students

What is popular culture? Essay It is very difficult to define this word, isnt it? Many people have spent plenty of time to give definition of this word. In order to define popular culture we first need to define the term culture . According to Raymond Williams, culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language. Williams suggests three main categories in the definition of culture. First of all, the ideal, in which culture is a general process in human perfection, intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development. We could use as an example, great philosophers, artists and poets (referring only to intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic factors in Western Europe). A second use of the word culture, the documentary, can be referring to particular way of life of people, a period, or a group. These are referred to, as cultural practices or lived cultures, e. g. Christmas. Finally, there is the social definition of culture which can be referred to the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activities such as poetry, ballet, film, etc. (Idea from Storey, 1998,p. We will write a custom essay on What is popular culture? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now 2 and Storey , 1994 ,p. 56) An obvious starting point in defining popular culture is to say that it is one widely favoured or well liked by many people. That can be proved from a quantitative index would meet the approval of many people (Storey, 1998, p. 56). We could examine sales of books, sales of CDs and video, also attendance records at concerts, sporting events, festivals and of course preferences for different television programs. But we might find things are so well liked that they become useless as a conceptual definition of popular culture. Such counting would almost certainly include the officially sanctioned high culture which in terms of book and record sales and audience ratings for television dramatization of the classics, can justifiable claim to be popular in this sense. A second way of defining of popular culture is to suggest that it is the culture which is left over after we have decided what high culture is. Popular culture becomes a residual category, one that accommodates those things which is failed to meet the required standards a high culture. In other words, popular culture as interior culture. Such distinctions are often supported by claims that popular culture is mass produced commercial culture, whereas high culture is the result of an individual act of creation. The division between the two is absolutely clear. (Storey, 1998, p. 7) Moreover, there are many problems especially if the division is dependent and supposed essential textual qualities. Can we say when popular culture is good or bad? For example, William Shakespeare is now seen as epitome of high culture. In the nineteenth century he wrote for the masses, for the ordinary people. He was not considered as a high culture. He was popular and worked for the popular theatre. And also film noir started as popular cinema and is now the preserve of academic and film clubs. And finally one recant example of cultural traffic moving in the other direction is Luciano Pavarottis recording of Puccinis Nessun Dorma. When Pavarottis, in 1990, managed to take nassun dorma to number one in the British charts, such commercial success on any quantitative analysis would make the composer, the performer and the song popular culture. A third way of defining popular culture is as a mass culture it is similar to the previous definition. The first that those who refer to popular culture as mass culture want to establish is that popular culture is a hopelessly commercial culture. It is mass produce for mass consumption. (Storey, 1998, p. 8) . According to Fiske and Frith, 80 and 90 per cent of singes and albums lose money. Such statistics should clearly call into question the notion of cultural consumption as an automatic and passive activity. For some cultural critics, mass culture, is an imported American culture and operates under the term Americanization but two things we can say with confident. .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .postImageUrl , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:hover , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:visited , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:active { border:0!important; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:active , .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59 .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud07bc131e972b8be314f1f579d4b1c59:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Fall Of The Western Roman Empire EssayFirst, as Andrew Ross said, popular culture has been socially and institutionally central in American for longer and in more significant way than in Europe. Second that the influence of American culture worldwide is undoubted. Popular culture is understood as collected dream-world(Storey, 1998, p. 8). A forth definition contents that popular culture is the culture which originates from the people. This view takes issue with any approach that insists that popular culture is something imposed upon the people from above.

Kia Corthon essays

Kia Corthon essays Kia Corthron poses this view to her audience. She says,I feel that if an audience leaves a play and they dont know which side Im on, then the point of the play did not come across. Which is not to say that Im telling them that they have to agree with me, but they should definitely know where I am coming from E would rather make sure that my plays have a clear point of view than worry about them not being dramatically sound. I dont want to feel that literary handcuffs are keeping me from saying what I really need to say (4). This quote defines the personality that Kia has had since she was a child. Kia grew up in Cumberland, Maryland, which was a place filled with factories. She was a part of a working class family. Her mother worked in a paper mill and worked ten hours a day and rarely had a day off. As a child, Kia was left home alone and had no friends. Her mother told her that she used to use the bottom three steps of the staircase as a stage for her characters, which were clothespins. At the age of five, Kia used her imagination to entertain herself, which later on reveals her talent as a playwright (3, 90) Kia Corthron attended the University of Maryland, where she had a bitter sweet experience. In the fall semester of her senior year, her professor gave her positive feedback on papers, but would publicly display an error that she made, which seemed to motivate her. The following semester (her last) Kia took her first playwrighting class. In her final project, she staged a thirty minute play about a Vietnam veteran, which was only supposed to be fifteen minutes of dialogue. This piece astonished the entire class, everyone was quiet. It was such an emotional piece that one student began to weep. Kia was so happy that she reached her audience on an emotional level, not because of the praise it received. It was then and there where Kia realized that the theater was the ...

Word Choice Economic vs. Economical

Word Choice Economic vs. Economical Word Choice: Economic vs. Economical The words â€Å"economic† and â€Å"economical† are the stuff pedants’ nightmares are made of. This is because they have importantly distinct meanings, yet they seem very similar at first glance. Suffice to say, this causes a lot of confusion, even among native speakers of English. Thus, it makes sense to familiarize yourself with these terms so you know how to use them in your work. Economic (Related to Finance) The adjective â€Å"economic† is mostly used when referring to money, finances or the economy: To implement the plan, major economic reforms will be necessary. It can also be used when describing something connected to the study of economics: Various economic theories were proposed to explain the crisis. Sometimes, â€Å"economic† is used to describe the financial prospects of a particular company: The current business model will not be economic in the long term. If only someone had warned Blockbuster. [Photo: Ian Taylor]In all cases, however, â€Å"economic† refers to money and finances. Economical (Value for Money) â€Å"Economical† is also an adjective, but specifically refers to â€Å"value for money† or â€Å"avoiding waste†. For instance, if we were running an understaffed business with a limited budget, we might say: We need an economical solution to the personnel problem. The term â€Å"economical† also applies in non-financial situations involving efficient use of resources: I drive a hybrid because it’s economical on fuel. I wrote I   ⠝ ¤ Hybrid on it because I want everyone to know how awesome I am. So while â€Å"economical† often means â€Å"value for money,† it can be used to refer to thrifty use of any resource. Economic or Economical? While some use these terms interchangeably, in academic writing, it’s crucial to maintain the distinction between â€Å"economic† and â€Å"economical.† This will ensure clarity, helping you to communicate effectively. There’s no simple way to remember the difference between these terms, but it can help to think of â€Å"economical† as a variation of â€Å"economic.† This way, if â€Å"economic† has the general meaning of â€Å"pertaining to money,† adding the â€Å"-al† gives â€Å"economical† the specific meaning of â€Å"not wasteful.† Remember: Economic = Related to the economy/money Economical = Value for money/not wasteful

Anthropology of Marxists, Marxians, and Marxish Essay

Anthropology of Marxists, Marxians, and Marxish - Essay Example The Hegelian system formulated the idea of self-consciousness that derived secular terms such as ‘the man’. This term created religious conceptions that characterized what would be a moral man whose basis drew from moral, political, theological among a list of other traits. In this text, Rosas as Marxian criticizes the way in which people along the Mexican border cannot be free to roam around their nation because of the intensified border patrols mounted by the USA in this territory. Essentially, when Rosas speaks to some Mexicans they tell him that they are only free when they live in the sewer lines that connect the USA and Mexico, which is basically an effect of capitalism. In most cases, those that seek to go to the USA to seek better opportunities opt to use the sewer line that connects the states of Sonora and Arizona, for the fear of being subjected to humiliating checks at the border (Rosas 2). Most of them attract the stereotype that they could be drug peddlers, which most might not be the case hence making it hard for them to access or receive US citizenship, which is a social conflict that Rosas seeks to address. Here, Foucault argues that subjects that fell under an individual in power had no option but to put their lives at risk for this person because what mattered was him to maintain his authority without caring about what would happen to them. Foucault criticizes ‘the right under the power of life and death’ because this meant those in power had the authority to take life as well as this was the law. The argument embedded here is that the western powers have borrowed from this archaic law that was applicable especially in Rome by introducing ‘deduction’, which encompasses incitement, bossing around, control and optimization among a list of other traits as elements of being in power (Foucault Michel 79).

Health Economics of Medicine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Health Economics of Medicine - Essay Example The value of Health Economics is indispensable in a society. Its scarcity is a primary concern especially among countries without ample resources to provide healthcare (Culyer, 1989). Another major issue that makes Health Economics important is the mode of distribution. There have been situations showing lack of logistic strategies that effectively deliver health to major recipients. Finally, the sustenance of supply and allocation of health care makes Health Economics valuable. In ensuring both the necessities are satisfied, costs have to be incurred consistently. It is the spending capacity of countries that decide supply and distribution of healthcare. According to Fuchs (1996, pp.1-24), the level of expenditures incurred by governments in healthcare delivery has increased precipitously. The sudden rise in cost can be attributed to intellectual advances, greater availability of information, and the ever-increasing demand for such service. The dedication of government spending to health care services results to various economic sacrifices. Aside from health, there are pressing needs that the society needs to acquire. Concentration in healthcare looms problems such as forging quality education and the generation of sustainable income through investments and government spending. Direct costs of delivering healthcare involve purchase of medicines, establishments of medical institutions, and hiring of personnel knowledgeable of health services. Other costs also include research and development, which at present is the most critical item being propagated by governments. Moreover, the government needs to incur indirect costs such as building of infrastructures to ensure that transportation and communication improves healthcare delivery. Furthermore, the marginal cost of health care needs to be evaluated. Unlike the total cost, which is simply an aggregate, marginal cost

Importance of Water Essay Example for Free

Importance of Water Essay In order to fulfill his desires, man exploits the environmental factors to a greater extent, by which the environment loses its natural capacity for self-stabilization. The impact of mans various activities that are detrimental to the environment are: * Increase in population density. * Rapid urbanization * Massive industrial growth * Inadequate food and * Depletion of resources. To meet the increasing demands of time, human beings deliberately exploit the natural environment to improve their quality of life. Unknowingly, different environmental activities such as construction of roads dams, airports, buildings, irrigation projects, power plants and industries have some negative repercussions on the environment in which man lives. Thus, the developmental activities are unsustainable for global ecosystem. But we cannot stop these activities. For the development of the nation, these activities are essential. Industrial growth is directly related to nations economy. Construction of major and minor irrigation projects and development of new power plants must not be frozen. Hence at the present context, when man has reached at twenty first century, no body would want for technological stagnation. On the other hand, excessive exploitation of the environment through these technological implications leads to disaster. Hence, there is the problem of one word pollution. So what is needed is the environmental management and sustainable development. Sustainable development is implied to regulate the demands of man in such a manner that the ability of the same environment to sustain his development will remain un-repaired,. — is the version of Bindu N. Lohani. Hence much emphasis is given on environmental management and sustainable development. It is as a discipline by itself is growing rapidly and no way it proposes to halt economic growth and to stop technical development; rather it aims at achieving that sustainable rate of economic growth which is necessary to meet mans material needs whilst conserving scarce natural resources and protecting both the external and the internal environments, says Dr.  Uma Shankar, senior faculty member of Management Development Institute, New Delhi. Hence, sustainable development and environmental management are essential for improvement both the quality of the environment and the quality of human life. For that source areas are identified to give utmost priorities.

Paul Hindemith :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul was born in the German town of Hanau in 1895, on December Sixteen. We might assume that Hindemith felt a pull in the musical direction from a very early age; Paul’s father was a painter and did not want his son becoming a musician, so our little composer-to-be ran away at the age of 11, and started his own life. Paul taught himself the violin and viola, and began earning his living by playing at Cafes and other such establishments. Eventually, Hindemith learned the rudiments of all the instruments that mattered, so he could play them at least passably-- but he was surely a virtuoso at his viola and viola d’amore.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eventually, Hindemith ended up at the Frankfurt Conservatory, where he studied his music performance under the tutelage of people like Arnold Mendelssohn. While there, Hindemith showed increasing interest in the field of composition-- he began writing in earnest around the time he completed his courses at the Conservatory, and began establishing himself in the music culture through chamber music and expressionistic opera.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul landed a pretty major job in the Frankfurt Opera Orchestra... he was first concertmaster, and then conductor over the years 1915-1923. After this, he founded his Amar String Quartet, for which he was violist-- the group became pretty celebrated and performed successfully throughout Europe. It’s agreed that 1921 was when Hindemith began to come into his own, and emerge as well-known into the world as a composer and performer. Hindemith appeared regularly at the Donaueschingen Festival starting that year, and in 1922-24 his Chamber Works were performed at the Salzburg Festival (which I assume was a fairly big deal at the time).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Up until about 1925, Hindemith was pretty conventional, going along more or less complacently with the musical norms of his time. But in 1925, he came out with â€Å"Kammermusik†, his first openly atonal composition. The piece was representative of new ideas, and roused lots of talk when it was performed at the Venice Festival of the International Society of Contemporary Music. Before he knew it, Paul was a sort of pioneer, a figurehead of the advancing frontier in â€Å"Modern Music†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ah-- during these years of his life, Hindemith was working as a professor of Composition at the Berlin Hochschule.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was around 1934 that Hindemith started having some trouble with the Nazis. For one, they didn’t like his music. In fact, Alfred Rosenberg, who was Chief of Nazi Foreign Affairs, said his musics were the â€Å"foulest perversions of German music.† Obviously, the Nazis gave his career

Individual Strength Assessment

The Strength Based Leadership assessment was designed to help define the strength in order to place people In position where they can thrive based on their leadership strengths In the four domains of leadership strength such as Executing, Influencing, Relationship Building, and Strategic Thinking (Rata & Conchie, 2008). While reading the assignments for this unit, I developed ideas of what my strengths may be prior to taking the Strength Based Leadership assessment.The assessment to determine my arsenal leadership strengths ended much as I suspected, and my five strengths are learner, individualizing, harmony, futuristic, focus. Learner Learner is described as an individual who weigh all the facts In which something occurred by using knowledge acquired from reading, classes, seminars or type of leadership strength apart from most. For the Learner, being left without the knowledge of a situation can be quite frustrating as this individual thrives on learning something new or gaining n ew skills in the current specialization field.Analyzing a topic or a situation is a great Job for the learner as this individual will pep researching until the answer is found (Rata & Conchie, 2008). As a Learner I enjoy reading, listening or hands on experience in my current occupation or a prospective career. The yearning for knowledge has been part of my life since I was in grade school. Reading has not always come easy for me, I did not learn to read until entering the fourth grade. Looking back as an adult, I believe I had an undiagnosed learning obstacle.I realized with the correct lighting or the use of an overlay on bright white paper seemed to help the words stay on the page, and allow easier and better retention of the information. Individualizing According to the Strength Based Leadership assessment results, an individual with Individualizing as a strength, by nature easily identifies with what others are thinking and feeling. This is a true statement, and being an indivi dualized helps this individual understand the other person's hopes, fears, Joys, and sorrows.Leaders with Individualizing strength have the welcoming ability to attract people from diverse backgrounds, education occupations, age groups or nationalities which makes this individual an asset in a group project setting. This type of leader will peak for those who cannot get the words out and will listen when the time comes to be quiet (Rata & Conchie, 2008). This type of strength was not a surprise to me because it is something I practice on a regular basis. This can be a positive as well as a negative.Positive because things usually go pretty smoothly once people get to know me as a person and what my skill levels are. Negative because there are those who feel threatened by my strength, and that can cause some uneasiness. Working through these types of feelings is achievable with relationship building over time. I believe this is a strength used in my current career every day. Harmony Harmony leadership strength is described as an individual who has the knack of noticing the emotions that distort information, and emphasizes facts as a way of bringing clarity to the conversation.This type of strength in an individual is driven by their talents and tends to finish whatever task they start (Rata & Conchie, 2008). This is a strength used every day in my current career, it is important to remain clearheaded in any situation especially when there is the potential for emotional issues. Facts and clear headiness are two very important characteristics a person can have when concentration is necessary. Futuristic Futuristic leadership strength have an instinct for making plans for the near future or long term goals to be achieved.This type of strength leader looks toward the future as a way to make things better or to reach a goal. This is a strength used in my current career every day as each day differs from the last as we make progress to brighten every smile. Focus Ind ividuals with focus leadership strength are driven by their talents and look forward to clearly defined goals. These individuals enjoy surrounding themselves by people who want to accomplish personal and or professional goals for themselves Rata & Conchie, 2008).This is a strength used in my current career; helping people educator in oral health care. Conclusion In conclusion, based on my own self-image, I feel the leadership strengths were right on target. I would have to say I agree with the results of the strength based leadership assessment because I use the Learner, Individualizing, Harmony, Futuristic, and Focus strengths on a daily basis.

Shiva Nataraja

Hinduism is not one religion but many related beliefs and numerous factions. There are various deities but there are only three gods that are the most well-known. Shiva is one of the three most popular Hindu deities. He is usually depicted in small statues that show him performing the Cosmic Dance. The statues all impose unique movements, his anatomical features, and their functions that unite all of its qualities together. Shiva Nataraja has a stunning presentation and elaborate movements as he performs the Cosmic Dance. Shiva's dance has cosmic significance, as it symbolizes the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe in an endlessly repeating cycle. He is depicted dancing with his left foot kicked in the air with his right foot is planted on top of a dwarf. Two of his arms are stretched out and two are pulled in close to his body. The way he is shown does indeed suggest this god is dancing. He is enclosed inside a circle of flames and in one of His upper right arms he holds a drum, the beating of which creates the universe, while on one of his upper left arms he holds a ball of flame that will eventually destroy it. n one of his right arms he carries a drum and in one of his left arms he carries a flame. His lower right hand displays the gesture of reassurance, while his lower left points to the ground as an indication of his power and strength. The Shiva Nataraja statues have many anatomical features and not very complicated material techniques. Shiva wears a short loincloth; a rib bon tied above his waist, and delicately tooled adornments. The scant clothing reveals his perfected form with its broad shoulders thinning to a limber waist. The jewelry is unemotional and the detail does not detract from the beauty of the body. He has his face rotated toward the onlooker, thus appearing like a king but still conscious of his compassionate role. Nearly all of the Shiva Nataraja statues are made out of bronze. The process to create these bronze statues is called lost-wax casting, and sometimes called by the French name of cire perdue. This is the process by which a brass or bronze sculpture is cast from an artist's sculpture. Other metals such as silver and gold are also ast. Intricate works can be achieved by this method, primarily depending on the carver's skills The significance of the Nataraja sculpture is that it is seen as the image of his rhythmic play which is the source of all movement within the universe, represented by the arch of flames. The purpose of the dance is to release men from illusion of the idea of the â€Å"self† and of the physical world. The cosmic dance was performed in Chidambaram in South India, called the center of the universe by some Hindus. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva's five activities, creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the â€Å"fear not† hand gesture), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and release (by the foot held aloft). As Nataraja, Shiva represents apocalypse and creation as he dances away the illusory world of Maya transforming it into power and enlightenment. The symbolism of Shiva Nataraja is religion, art and science merged as one. In God's endless dance of creation, preservation, destruction and paired graces is hidden a deep understanding of our universe. Nataraja, the King of Dance, has four arms. The upper right hand holds the drum from which creation issues forth. The lower right hand is raised in blessing, betokening preservation. The upper left hand holds a flame, which is destruction, the dissolution of form. The right leg, representing obscuring grace, stands upon Apasmarapurusha, a soul temporarily earth-bound by its own sloth, confusion and forgetfulness. The uplifted left leg is revealing grace, which releases the mature soul from bondage. The lower left hand gestures toward that holy foot in assurance that Siva's grace is the refuge for everyone, the way to liberation. The circle of fire represents the cosmos and especially consciousness. The all-devouring form looming above is Mahakala, â€Å"Great Time. † The cobra around Nataraja's waist is kundalini shakti, the soul-impelling cosmic power resident within all. Nataraja's dance is not just a symbol. It is taking place within each of us, at the atomic level, this very moment. The Agamas proclaim, â€Å"The birth of the world, its maintenance, its destruction, the soul's obscuration and liberation are the five acts of his dance. â€Å"

Causes of the Great Crash essays

Causes of the Great Crash essays In 1929 there had been a bull market for some time, and it seemed like it would never stop. However, such prosperity would not last forever. In October of that year, the market came to an abrupt halt. It was not a simple matter however. There was no single reason why the market finally crashed as it did but rather there were many factors that had lead to this devastating event. The first reason that had helped contribute to the stock market crash of 1929 was the huge misdistribution of wealth. The rich 5% elite was controlling the economy as well as about 25% of the nations income. Low wages, horrible working conditions and tremendous hours remained the same, as labor unions were completely ineffective during this time period. Because wages and prices werent changing, as was the output per worker was, the rich were only getting richer. Since they were the big spenders, they basically decided which direction the economy was going. The second reason was the fact that the unstable United States economy was part of an unstable world economy. As America prospered in the 1920s, Europe struggled to rebuild itself from the devastation of the war. America throughout the 1920s, with its booming economy, helped Europe by lending them millions of dollars. The loans given out by the United States were expected to be paid back by the foreign allies. However, what was really misunderstood by the United States was that the foreign allies were in no shape to repay any loans that had been taken from the Untied States. In addition to that, there was a lot of corruption involved with many overseas loans such as in Latin America and Peru. In light of all this, investors of course realized the danger and in turn simply stopped giving loans out. This created a negative effect for farmers who now had a smaller export market and for bondholders. Another big reason was the mass marketing of stock ...

6 Proven Ways for Women to Get a Higher Salary

6 Proven Ways for Women to Get a Higher Salary By now, you’ve likely heard the rather grim statistics: on average, women earn less money than men for comparable jobs. In 2015, women made 80 cents for every dollar earned by men in the same roles, according to the Institute of Women’s Policy Research. The whys and hows of this salary difference is kind of a political football- everyone seems to have an opinion why that is, or even whether the gender gap truly exists. While that discussion is for another time and place, let’s go with the stats on this one, and look at how women can overcome challenges and pay disparities to improve their own salary outlook. 1. Be your own best advocate.The first thing you need to do is understand that this is your ball to carry. No one is going to come along with a big check and say, â€Å"You know what, you deserve more money. Take this!† No matter how awesome you are at your job, or how above and beyond you’ve gone lately, it’s most likely going to be up t o you to help ensure that you’re being compensated as much as possible.This is something I’ve struggled with personally throughout my career. I’ve always had the mindset of, â€Å"I’m gonna work really hard, and be really great at this, and people are going to notice and reward me accordingly.† Guess what? Praise and acknowledgment don’t necessarily translate into higher salary. Once I realized that it was on me to make sure I was making what I was worth- and taking positive, proactive steps to make that happen.2. Know your market value.This is key. Increasing your salary is going to be very difficult if you don’t really know what other people are making in your field and at your experience level. If your ask isn’t reasonable, your chances of getting a bumped-up salary are somewhere in the area of â€Å"laughed out of the room.†In another hard lesson in my career, a colleague who was leaving our company let me know what he was earning there (we had the same job title and responsibilities). It was significantly more than I was making at the time, and I was floored. When I brought this up to my boss, her response? â€Å"You weren’t supposed to know that.† Maybe not, in some unspoken â€Å"talking money is rude† kind of way, but I did know it, and it gave me a number to aim for when it came time for the annual review and salary increase.You shouldn’t have to rely on the grapevine to know what others are making, but you also probably shouldn’t walk right up to your coworkers and demand to see their pay stubs. We have tons of great tools available to us to find out what others are making in our industry, and what we can reasonably expect based on experience, location, etc.:Salary.comPayScaleGlassdoorYou can use all of these without having a single awkward conversation about salary and personal finances. Don’t hesitate to have as much information at your disposal as possible. And don’t let anyone convince you that it’s rude to talk numbers when it comes to your own career and salary goals.4. Negotiate every time.According to Stanford-based leadership expert Margaret A. Neale, women just don’t negotiate at the rates that men do. And in fact, Linda Babcock, author of Women Don’t Ask, found that while 57% of men negotiate salary, only about 7% of women do. Seriously, 7%! It looks like everyone- men and women alike- should be negotiating more, but especially women. Not negotiating is like closing a door without checking to see if anyone’s there. How do you know if there’s an opportunity to increase your salary if you haven’t even tried yet?And don’t think that negotiation is just for new job offers- you should be negotiating your salary at every chance, including annual reviews, after times when you’ve gone above and beyond at work or taken on new responsibilities successfully, and/ or when you discover that your market value is higher than your current salary level. Whether you’re a negotiation newbie or want to bump up your skills and become a master negotiator, we have plenty of resources for you:Your Comprehensive Guide to Negotiating SalaryHow to Get a Raise at Work6 Tips for Negotiating the Salary You WantThe Super Easy Guide: How to Negotiate a Raise and PromotionThere are also lots of experts online who have honed their negotiating skills, and want to share that information with other women. Resources like MichelleMotivateMe are a great place to start:Once you get over any hesitations about getting in there and playing the negotiation game, you’ll have started advocating for yourself and your salary goals in the best and most direct way possible.5. Think small (company).If you’ve tried negotiating and still fallen short of your salary goals, it might be time to think about switching companies. Hired.com investigated wage gaps at dif ferent kinds of companies, and came up with some intriguing statistics around the unfortunately traditional wage gap. It turns out that smaller companies and startup companies are less likely to have significant wage gaps, compared to companies that were bigger and more corporate, or that had been established longer.The thinking behind this? Small companies tend to have more visibility into salaries, which is an equalizer. If employees know that Frank two desks away is making more for the same job, the company has an employee relations incentive to keep things more equal. The other interesting angle was that startup (or â€Å"seed stage†) companies may have less pay disparity because they have less flexibility in the salaries they can offer employees, so they can’t really afford to offer one employee a drastically different salary than another employee in the same role.So what does this mean for your own salary? You might want to consider whether there are companies in your field that can offer you better salary- less established companies that you may not have considered before.6. Think outside your career box.If you feel like you’re stuck in a pay rut, you might also want to consider a job change. There are growing fields, like logistics/trucking, manufacturing, and information technology, where women are the minority of workers. Many women have the base skills necessary for these â€Å"middle-skill† jobs (which often don’t require a college degree), but just aren’t pursuing them at the same rate men are. If you’re looking for more opportunities to segue into higher-paying roles, one of these industries might be a great path for you. (Just don’t forget to negotiate!)The good news is that statistics may inform us about what’s going on, but they don’t have to define us- or our careers. There’s no reason to accept the status quo when it comes to your own career and your goals. If youâ €™re a woman and you’re interested in boosting your earning potential, you have tools to help you do that. And if more women take control of their salary destiny and start using all of those tools, we can start changing those stats, one closed gap at a time.

Fitness Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fitness Report - Essay Example There are several effects that arise from Diabetes II. They include nerve damage, eye damage, heart disease and kidney damage. Also, diabetes quickens the narrowing and hardening of arteries, which usually leads to coronary heart disease and strokes. Diabetic people have higher mortality rates due to complications that result from the diabetes than non-diabetic people. According to Fox and Kilvert (65), the main causes of onset-diabetes include insufficient insulin in the blood, and abnormal insulin; thus, does not function properly. Also, diabetes II develops when the body starts resisting insulin, and when pancreas fails to generate enough insulin. Several studies have shown that Diabetes II is partly reversible. For instance, a study conducted by the School of Medicine in the U.S, showed that Diabetes II is in part an autoimmune disease. The B cells occur in the inflammation of the visceral fat that comes before diabetes, and controlling them using drugs can prevent insulin resistance; hence, reversing the diabetic condition. Lifestyle choices that one can make to prevent or slow down the onset of Diabetes II include regular exercises, which can improve insulin sensitivity, controlling weight since even a small weight loss of about 7% of the total body weight can prevent diabetes, and reduction of carbohydrate intake. Diabetes II patients are responsible for much of their care, which can be made easy by setting diabetes goals for weight, blood sugar levels, cardiac, and exercise goals. For the weight, a person should aim to maintain a healthy weight for their body type and height. Also, they should follow the blood sugar targets and the cardiac targets set by the National institute of Health (Fox and Kilvert

American Governement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

American Governement - Essay Example That is, the constitution that has become synonymous with what is known of the American existence. To best understand the power of the document and the events surrounding its creation, the first thing to do, would be to observe the very men who were involved, with the process of creating it from the beginning. The very men that, through their efforts, would pave the way towards the present state of the American process of government. One of those very men would be James Madison. A man who would set forth to help create a governing document and someone who would at one point serve the young nation as it's 4th President. With everything riding upon the insatiable desire of the men to create a document that would prove to be long lasting, the stakes involved would appear to be considerable. A key concern for the founders, would be the preservation of liberty. Author James Wilson includes the following portion in his text, of a statement given by James Madison, that involved the creation of a stable government. It reads in part, "... You must first enable the government to control the governed: and in the next place oblige it to control itself," (Wilson, p. 15, 2005). As is the case in many other instances, initial intentions may fall by the waste side during the course of an initial process with a desire goal(s) in mind. In the case of the Constitutional Convention, "When James Madison and the other 56 delegates to the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia in May 1787, they intended to amend the Articles of Confederation," ("James Madison's", para. 1, n.d.). While the men would have initially come together to revise an existing document, the resulting consequences of their final work would have lasting implications for over two centuries. Another existing document that served to be a basis for the resulting doctrine of the constitution, would be the Virginia Plan. Basically a summation of the intended items intended for inclusion in the final draft of the constitution, the plan itself would become one of the many parts of this historical period in time. "By agreeing to consider the Virginia Plan, the convention, fundamentally altered its task from amending the Articles to designing a true national government," (Wilson, p.16, 2005). To give a better glimpse of the outside environment surrounding the convention, "May 25, 1787, freshly spread dirt covered the cobblestone street in front of the Pennsylvania State House, protecting the men inside from the sound of passing carriages and carts," (Bent, para. 1, n.d.). From such menial beginnings at the heart of pre-technological advancement, along with varying sociological and economic circumstances of the era at the time, the constitution would be an enduring document that would stand the test of time. Having the intended changes and guidelines be such that, it would continue to be felt by the very nation that it was created to protect. In place of a reigning monarch, the American political system would be comprised of a central political figure, in this case the President, along with a judicial branch made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate. With each body of power, the President's being considered the Executive, having their own roles that would, from time to time over many decades, find themselves intertwined with each other to varying degrees. Aligning itself with this very mentality, authors Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis make

Does China's domestic political situation constrain its generation of Essay

Does China's domestic political situation constrain its generation of soft power - Essay Example Such an interpretational model has become so important that leaders of some of the most powerful nations in the world have even begun using the term and describing it as a fundamental and foundational element with regards to how they perceive the best course ahead with regards to development and world relations for the future. However, as with any interpretational model of interaction or other international/foreign relations tool, the use and application of soft power cannot definitively be said to be on the whole effective. This is of course due to the fact that different dynamics within individual countries, overall levels of democracy, and levels of emphasis that the decision-makers placed upon such a construct are all more important to defining the overall degree of success that soft power will enjoy within a specific system. Accordingly, the goal of this particular analysis will be to analyze and discuss the increasing role that soft power plays within the external relations of the People’s Republic of China and whether or not the current and past local dynamic that exist within this nation ultimately helps or constrains the overall level of soft power that it can hope to integrate within its foreign relations framework. Rather than seeking to engage in a value judgment with regards to whether or not the Chinese governmental structure is â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad†, the analysis will instead seek to gain a level of inference with regards to whether or not the current model needs and facilitates a more cohesive application of soft power or whether the undemocratic and monolithic structure of the government necessarily constrains the degree and effectiveness of whatever soft power might exist or be practiced in the first place. Soft Power and the Means Whereby States Engage with â€Å"the other† Soft power in and of itself is not a new concept. Ultimately, at least a basic understanding and interpretation of what this concept stands for has been engaged by many world powers over the past several hundred years. However, the work of Joseph Nye and the introduction into the global political lexicon of the term soft power as necessarily raised this as an issue and approach that has helped it to gain a greatly increased share of notoriety. For instance, in 2007, General Secretary Hu Jintao met with the 17th Communist Party Conference and specifically addressed the growing and extent need for an increase in the exhibition of Chinese soft power. In such a way, the reader can come to the understanding that regardless of what the preceding analysis might illuminate, the Communist Party of China and General Secretary Hu Jintao are keenly aware of the benefits that it can provide and the need to integrate with it on a more effective level as a means of furthering the individual goals that the People’s Republic of China hopes to see affected within the world. Likewise, before delving directly into the means by whic h soft power is furthered or produced by the Chinese system of governance, the reader should first consider the key differentials that separate the People’

Effect of Various Factors on DNA of Human Sperms

Effect of Various Factors on DNA of Human Sperms In vitro study of the effect of various factors on DNA of Human sperms Dave Avani1, Jain NK1, Patel Himanshu 2, Patel Madhuri 2, Bhatt Vidisha 2, Patel Komal2, Mallick Sarada3, *Srivastava Pradeep 3 Abstract Aim: Effect of various clinical compound and environmental conditions were studied for the in vitro fragmentation of the human sperm DNA, as well on the quality of semen samples. Method: The semen samples obtained from different males were then treated further to check the effects of the chemicals taken into consideration. The effects were studied through sperm chromatin dispersion test. Results: Primary results showed that the antibiotic tetracycline was the most effective chemical causing DNA damage, as compared to the other chosen compounds. Conclusion: The study concludes that the tetracycline drug is more efficient then the others in causing fragmentation of the DNA. Keywords: Sperm DNA, Fragmentation, Tetracycline, Sperm Chromatin Dispersion Test. INTRODUCTION The germ line is the most sensitive of all and can be considered as a good candidate for the measurement of the effects caused by the compounds of choice [1-4]. Today infertility is linked to many reasons such as mutation in the sperms or the egg, irradiation, and certain chemicals such as food additives, packaging materials, heat etc. Many articles have been put forward proving the adverse effects of these chemicals on the germ line especially the sperms and its DNA. The paternal genome in mammalian spermatozoa is condensed in a manner that is specific to the cell type presumably to protect the DNA during the transit from the male to the oocyte prior to fertilization. Damaged DNA has been observed in testicular, epididymal and ejaculated sperm. Temporary nicks have been observed in the sperm which were, linked to the topoisomerases activity, facilitate histone-protamine replacement, but if these nicks are not fixed they would evolve into DNA fragmentation on mature sperm [5]. Bisphenol A (BPA) used to make plastics and epoxy resins mainly comes through diet is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH3)2C(C6H4OH)2[6-8]. It is part of the bisphenols group of chemical compounds with two hydroxyphenyl functionalities. It is a colourless solid that is soluble in organic solvents, but poorly soluble in water. Many studies also have shown that BPA has estrogenic activity in several in vitro and in vivo preparations [8-10]. Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate or MSG, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids[11-13]. Industrial food manufacturers market and use MSG as a flavour enhancer because it balances, blends and rounds the total perception of other tastes. Many experiments have been carried out which have shown the harmful effects of excessive intake of MSG on the development of seminiferous tubules as well as the spermatids[14-15]. The tetracyclines are a family of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis by preventing the attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosomal acceptor (A) site. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum agents, exhibiting activity against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, a typical organisms commonly given in treatment[10, 16].Many studies in the past indicated that when rats were administered a significant amount of Tetracycline on daily basis the animals showed a decreased level of testosterone ultimately affecting the development of the leydig cell. No direct relationship has been observed till date on changes in the humans but many studies are being carried out to study the detrimental effects of tetracycline on human sperm cells and its DNA[17] (fig.1). Fig.1.Molecular structure of compounds: a) Molecular structure of Bisphenol A, b) Molecular structure of Monosodium Glutamate c) Molecular structure of Tetracycline. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Sample analysis was done for the healthy men between the ages 25-30 yrs. The inclusion criteria were only healthy men with the age between 25-30 yrs considered. On the hand exclusion criteria of the male were they should free from various diseases like Diabetes, Blood Pressure, Tuberculosis, Sexual Dysfunction Cardiac problems. The samples collected from Stem Cure Pvt Ltd, Centre for Reproductive Medicine Stem cell Development, Ahmedabad, India. The study approved by the Ethical Committee of the Department of Life Sciences, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (India). Sample preparation: 10 semen samples of perfectly healthy male were collected at a collection centre in a sterile jar and were brought to the laboratory. Direct swim-up technique was utilised for preparing the sperm cells for the analysis[18]. The sperm debris including the dead sperm cells was removed prior using by centrifuging the sample in a Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) medium at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes[19]. The sperm pellet obtained was overlaid with PBS and incubated at 37oC and the supernatant containing the motile sperms were used for the assay. Effect of heat was comparing with normal cells discussed later in the discussion section. Chemicals: Bisphenol A (BPA), Tetracycline, Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) , concentrated HCl, 0.4M Tris, 1% ÃŽ ² mercaptoethanol, 50mM EDTA, 1% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulphate), pH 7.5 was used for making Lysis I, 0.4M Tris, 2M NaCl, 1% SDS, pH 7.5 was used for making Lysis II[20], 0.09M Tris borate, 0.002M EDTA, pH 7.5 was used for making the wash buffer and pure ethanol. 0.4 gm, 0.6 gm, 0.8 gm of Tetracycline, MSG, BPA were dissolved in 100 ml of Double Distilled Water (DDW) to get 4%, 6% and 8% of concentration. Individual studies of samples were conducted using individual chemicals separately. Physical analysis of Semen: Semen sample were physically analysed after the liquefaction, and viscosity were checked by observing the droplets falling from a disposable plastic pipette. Vitality Staining: The semen sample was studied for the presence of any unwanted materials using vitality staining test. The sample was mixed and a smear was prepared on a glass slide along with eosin-nigrosin stain and was observed under the microscope at 100X magnification after the smear dried completely. The live sperm heads were seen white in colour while the dead sperm heads were stained as pink. Analysis of DNA fragmentation using the SCD Test: Slides precoated with 1% agarose were used as a base slide. Final concentration of 15-20 million sperms were mixed with 1% low melting point agarose overlaid onto base slide and covered with coverslip[21]. The slides were kept at 4 °C to get the gel solidified and later the coverslips were removed carefully. No reduction was observed, however minute reduction was there maintained with PBS. Chemicals of different concentrations i.e. 4%, 6%, and 8% (Tetracycline, MSG and BPA should be prepared freshly prior to the analysis). The slides were kept in these individual solution for time 1.5hrs and 3hrs respectively, study effect of heat was made by heating the agar mixed sample containing the slides of sperm the agar bath was heated at 45oC 55oC and 60oC. After the incubation period the slides were immediately removed and dipped in 0.08N HCl for 7minutes. The slides were then kept for Lysis in two cycles of 10 minutes followed by 5 minutes respectively. The slides were then washed with PBS buffer and dehydrated with 70%, 90% and 100% ethanol for 2minutes respectively. The slides were allowed to dry and are then observed under visible light using geimsa stain [5, 22]. RESULT Semen Analysis: The result of physical analysis of semen is as shown in Table 1. The semen samples studied were free of any contaminants and appeared normal. The pre and post wash count were also carried out which showed that the semen samples were perfectly healthy. The viscosity and the volume of each sample under study were within the normal range as suggested by the world health organisation standard. Analysis of DNA fragmentation using the SCD (Sperm Chromatin Dispersion) Test The SCD test carried out depict the effect of the chosen compounds on the sperm DNA which are represented as below. (A) Effect of Heat:- Sperm sample were subjected to heat treatment in water bath for 1.5 hrs at the temperature of 45oC and 55oC, where normal temperature of 28oC was used as control. The results are shown in fig 2.0. (B) Effect of Chemicals:-The studies were made on the percentage damage observed after chemical treatment to the sperm cells for 1.5 hrs and 3hrs of incubation time. Fig 3.0 and 4.0 depict the effect of tetracycline, BPA and MSG on sperm cells for 1.5 hrs and 3.0 hrs of incubation time respectively. Sperm cells without chemicals but buffer solution were taken as control. Various concentrations of chemicals viz, 4 – 8% was taken for the study. It was observed that tetracycline causes the maximum damage of about 92.4% after an incubation time 3hrs at 8% concentration, while the treatment with heat, monosodium glutamate and bisphenol exhibit a maximum damage of 55.6% at 55 °C, 55% and 44% respectively after an incubation time of 3hrs at 8% concentration. Table.1. Physical analysis of semen Fig.2.Effect of Heat Treatment on sperm cells Fig.3.Effect of Chemicals on sperm cells (incubation time 1.5h) Fig.4.Effect of Chemical on sperm cells (incubation time 3 h) Table.2.Anova Method DISCUSSION Statistical Data Analysis: The table 2.0 depicts below is the statistical representation of the data obtained after the SCD test. Anova test was applied using t-Test Software (Excel). It shows that the data obtained from the SCD are significant and valid. P=0.05, It was significant at 55 °C. Control groups are healthy individuals where sperm cells were preserved and treated at 28 °C without additive chemicals (MSG, BPA, and Tetracycline). Samples collected from the normal subjects. The table exhibit that F value of Tetracycline Bisphenol A and MSG are 22.24, 13.435 and 14.405 respectively the observation are significant Thus it can be said that the hypothesis given by the author is correct i.e. It was significant. Tetracycline gives a higher percentage of damage to the DNA of the sperm cells in vitro. Image Analysis of Damage after the Treatment The figures.5 (a to f) given were obtained after under a visible light observation. The figures below show the extent of damage caused by the treatment given to the cell after 3hrs of incubation. The halos seen represent the extent of damage i.e. large halos represent less damage while the cells without any halos represent the most damaged cell. The control slide cells have a normal halo around which depicts healthy DNA while the cells seen in tetracycline treated cells lack the halo which shows that the DNA of the sperm cells have been damaged to a greater extent. The slide treated with Bisphenol A shows a less amount of damaged cell in comparison to that of Tetracycline. The least damage has been in the sample treated at 45 °C shown by large halos around the cells. Hence from these figures it can be said that the tetracycline treatment produces the highest damage to the DNA of sperm cells. Fig.5.Image Analysis of Damage: a) Control Slide, b) Tetracycline at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation, c) Bisphenol A at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation, d) Monosodium Glutamate at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation , e) Effect of temperature at 45oC f) Effect of temperature at 55 °C CONCLUSION The study concludes that the drug tetracycline used for antibiotics for patients is proven to cause damage to the sperm DNA along with monosodium glutamate which is a flavour enhancing substance, as well as Bisphenol A which is a component of food packaging materials such as plastic bottles, feeder bottles etc. Though the exact mechanism by which the DNA is being affected is not known it can be said that exposing the sperm with the highest concentration of the above considered chemicals can be one of the many reasons which cause DNA damage which may lead to infertility in the present lifestyle. These observations also lead to conclude that the drug tetracycline is more effective then the others in causing fragmentation of the DNA and hence affecting its integrity. References 1.Agarwal, A. and T.M. Said, Role of sperm chromatin abnormalities and DNA damage in male infertility. Human Reproduction Update, 2003. 9(4): p. 331-345. 2.Ward, M.A. and W.S. Ward, A model for the function of sperm DNA degradation. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 2004. 16(5): p. 547-554. 3.Graham, C., Reproductive biology of the great apes: comparative and biomedical perspectives. 2012: Elsevier. 4.Gonzà ¡lez-Marà ­n, C., J. Gosà ¡lvez, and R. Roy, Types, causes, detection and repair of DNA fragmentation in animal and human sperm cells. International journal of molecular sciences, 2012. 13(11): p. 14026-14052. 5.Fernà ¡ndez, J.L., et al., The sperm chromatin dispersion test: a simple method for the determination of sperm DNA fragmentation. Journal of andrology, 2003. 24(1): p. 59-66. 6.Allard, P. and M.P. Colaià ¡covo, Bisphenol A impairs the double-strand break repair machinery in the germline and causes chromosome abnormalities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2010. 107(47): p. 20405-20410. 7.Sakaue, M., et al., Bisphenol-A affects spermatogenesis in the adult rat even at a low dose. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH-ENGLISH EDITION-, 2001. 43(4): p. 185-190. 8.Kundakovic, M. and F.A. Champagne, Epigenetic perspective on the developmental effects of bisphenol A. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 2011. 25(6): p. 1084-1093. 9.Calafat, A.M., et al., Exposure of the US population to Bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-Octylphenol: 2003-2004. Environmental health perspectives, 2008: p. 39-44. 10.Ye, X., et al., Potential external contamination with bisphenol A and other ubiquitous organic environmental chemicals during biomonitoring analysis: an elusive laboratory challenge. Environmental health perspectives, 2013. 121(3): p. 283-286. 11.Ismail, N., Assessment of DNA Damage in Testes from Young Wistar Male Rat Treated with Monosodium Glutamate. Life Science Journal, 2012. 9(1). 12.Belluardo, N. and M. Bindoni, Effects of early destruction of the mouse arcuate nucleus by monosodium glutamate on age-dependent natural killer activity. Brain research, 1990. 534(1): p. 225-233. 13.Walker, R. and J.R. Lupien, The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate. The Journal of nutrition, 2000. 130(4): p. 1049S-1052S. 14.Yamaguchi, S. and C. Takahashi, Interactions of monosodium glutamate and sodium chloride on saltiness and palatability of a clear soup. Journal of Food Science, 1984. 49(1): p. 82-85. 15.Là ¶liger, J., Function and importance of glutamate for savory foods. The Journal of nutrition, 2000. 130(4): p. 915S-920S. 16.Hargreaves, C.A., et al., Effects of co-trimoxazole, erythromycin, amoxycillin, tetracycline and chloroquine on sperm function in vitro. Human reproduction, 1998. 13(7): p. 1878-1886. 17.Tortora, G.J. and B.H. Derrickson, Principles of anatomy and physiology. 2008: John Wiley Sons. 18.Parrish, J., A. Krogenaes, and J. Susko-Parrish, Effect of bovine sperm separation by either swim-up or Percoll method on success of in vitro fertilization and early embryonic development. Theriogenology, 1995. 44(6): p. 859-869. 19.LASSO, J.L., et al., Mechanism of superoxide dismutase loss from human sperm cells during cryopreservation. Journal of andrology, 1994. 15(3): p. 255-265. 20.Chohan, K.R., et al., Comparison of chromatin assays for DNA fragmentation evaluation in human sperm. Journal of andrology, 2006. 27(1): p. 53-59. 21.Enciso, M., et al., Infertile men with varicocele show a high relative proportion of sperm cells with intense nuclear damage level, evidenced by the sperm chromatin dispersion test. Journal of andrology, 2006. 27(1): p. 106-111. 22.Agarwal, A. and S.S. Allamaneni, Sperm DNA damage assessment: a test whose time has come. Fertility and sterility, 2005. 84(4): p. 850-853. 1

Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Feminism Essay -- Literacy Analysis

The adversity women endured in a patriarchal society during the nineteenth century gave birth to female feminism. Charlotte Perkins Gilman was one of the leading feminist during that time. Gilman strived for the oppressed women during the â€Å"Victorian Age†, she dedicated her life to social reform believing ever women should have equality. She opened the door for every day women to become involved and to be the masters of their own destiny. The subjugation Gilman faced in the nineteenth century as well as her own experience with postpartum depression greatly influenced her short story â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Gilman lived in a time of American history where women were subjugated against and using her own life experience, she wrote â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Gilman was born on July 3, 1860, during the American Civil War. After the war, America changed drastically and Gilman was at the forefront of that change. The Industrial Revolution soon took place after the war. The men who no longer fought on the battlefield began to integrate into the workforce. According to Carol Hymowitz who wrote A History of Women in America â€Å"The business of business took middle-class men away from their homes, leaving women alone in them. Women of the middle class were isolated from the world of men a commerce.† Women continued to do traditional work such as cooking, cleaning, making cloths and caring for children. Because the men earned money and the women did not, women’s work was not considered â€Å"real work† (History).This was the beginning of the inequality among sexe s. Gilman watched and observed the world around her as men portrayed women as nothing more than simple house-wives. Gilman was outraged by laws which made wives property of their husbands,... ... Works Cited Norton, Mary Beth. Major Problems in American Women’s History. Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Health, 1989. p202.Print> Hymowitz, Carol, and Michaele Weissman. A History of Women in America. New York: Bantam Books, 1978. p64. Print> Johnson, Greg. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Short Stories for Students. Vol.1. p289. Print> Beck, Cheryl, and Jeanne Driscoll. Postpartum Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Saubury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2006. p83. Print> http://lion.chadwyck.com/searchFulltext.do?id=BIO003857&divLevel=0&queryId=../session/13 36535002_12933&trailId=1369532E38F&area=ref&forward=critref_ft. Chadwych, Healy. Literature Online. Criticism & Reference: Full Text.2001.May 2, 2012. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/postpartum-depression/DS00546. Mayo Claim Staff. Postpartum Depression. June 3, 2010. May 2, 2012 Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Feminism Essay -- Literacy Analysis The adversity women endured in a patriarchal society during the nineteenth century gave birth to female feminism. Charlotte Perkins Gilman was one of the leading feminist during that time. Gilman strived for the oppressed women during the â€Å"Victorian Age†, she dedicated her life to social reform believing ever women should have equality. She opened the door for every day women to become involved and to be the masters of their own destiny. The subjugation Gilman faced in the nineteenth century as well as her own experience with postpartum depression greatly influenced her short story â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Gilman lived in a time of American history where women were subjugated against and using her own life experience, she wrote â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Gilman was born on July 3, 1860, during the American Civil War. After the war, America changed drastically and Gilman was at the forefront of that change. The Industrial Revolution soon took place after the war. The men who no longer fought on the battlefield began to integrate into the workforce. According to Carol Hymowitz who wrote A History of Women in America â€Å"The business of business took middle-class men away from their homes, leaving women alone in them. Women of the middle class were isolated from the world of men a commerce.† Women continued to do traditional work such as cooking, cleaning, making cloths and caring for children. Because the men earned money and the women did not, women’s work was not considered â€Å"real work† (History).This was the beginning of the inequality among sexe s. Gilman watched and observed the world around her as men portrayed women as nothing more than simple house-wives. Gilman was outraged by laws which made wives property of their husbands,... ... Works Cited Norton, Mary Beth. Major Problems in American Women’s History. Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Health, 1989. p202.Print> Hymowitz, Carol, and Michaele Weissman. A History of Women in America. New York: Bantam Books, 1978. p64. Print> Johnson, Greg. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Short Stories for Students. Vol.1. p289. Print> Beck, Cheryl, and Jeanne Driscoll. Postpartum Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Saubury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2006. p83. Print> http://lion.chadwyck.com/searchFulltext.do?id=BIO003857&divLevel=0&queryId=../session/13 36535002_12933&trailId=1369532E38F&area=ref&forward=critref_ft. Chadwych, Healy. Literature Online. Criticism & Reference: Full Text.2001.May 2, 2012. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/postpartum-depression/DS00546. Mayo Claim Staff. Postpartum Depression. June 3, 2010. May 2, 2012

Nurse Ratched Essay

A former army nurse, Nurse Ratched represents the oppressive mechanization, dehumanization, and emasculation of modern society—in Bromden’s words, the Combine. Her nickname is â€Å"Big Nurse,† which sounds like Big Brother, the name used in George Orwell’s novel 1984 to refer to an oppressive and all-knowing authority. Bromden describes Ratched as being like a machine, and her behavior fits this description: even her name is reminiscent of a mechanical tool, sounding like both â€Å"ratchet† and â€Å"wretched.† She enters the novel, and the ward, â€Å"with a gust of cold.† Ratched has complete control over every aspect of the ward, as well as almost complete control over her own emotions. In the first few pages we see her show her â€Å"hideous self† to Bromden and the aides, only to regain her doll-like composure before any of the patients catch a glimpse. Her ability to present a false self suggests that the mechanistic and oppressive forces in society gain ascendance through the dishonesty of the powerful. Without being aware of the oppression, the quiet and docile slowly become weakened and gradually are subsumed. Nurse Ratched does possess a nonmechanical and undeniably human feature in her large bosom, which she conceals as best she can beneath a heavily starched uniform. Her large breasts both exude sexuality and emphasize her role as a twisted mother figure for the ward. She is able to act like â€Å"an angel of mercy† while at the same time shaming the patients into submission; she knows their weak spots and exactly where to peck. The patients try to please her during the Group Meetings by airing their dirtiest, darkest secrets, and then they feel deeply ashamed for how she made them act, even though they have done nothing. She maintains her power by the strategic use of shame and guilt, as well as by a determination to â€Å"divide and conquer† her patients. McMurphy manages to ruffle Ratched because he plays her game: he picks up on her weak spots right away. He uses his overt sexuality to throw her off her machinelike track, and he is not taken in by her thin facade of compassion or her falsely therapeutic tactics. When McMurphy rips her shirt open at the  end of the novel, he symbolically exposes her hypocrisy and deceit, and she is never able to regain power.

Effect of Internal Controls on Financial Performance Essay

Over the past decade, Africa and other developing regions have been in the midst of tremendous changes. Market liberalization and governmental decentralization policies have interfaced with globalization and urbanization trends to dramatically transform social, political, economic and cultural lives. In this context of rapid change, SME operations can no longer remain behind serving only to meet sustenance income for their owners. SMEs engagements have to become a dynamic and integral part of the market economy. The identification of factors that determine new venture performance such as survival, growth or profitability has been one of the most central fields of entrepreneurship research (Sarasvathy, 2004). A multitude of research papers has focused on exploring various variables and their impact on performance (Bamford et al., 2004). However, in order to be able to analyze and model the performance of new ventures and SMEs, the complexity and dynamism they are facing as well as the fact that they may not be a homogenous group but significantly different in regard to many characteristics (Gartner et al., 1989) have to be taken into account. In line with the above, there have been challenging debates all over the world on the role played by Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards economic development. Therefore, a vast literature on the growth and performance of SMEs has been developed over the years. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have had a privileged treatment in the development literature, particularly over the last two decades. Hardly any arguments are put forward against SMEs, even if development policies do not necessarily favour them and economic programs, voluntarily or not, often continue to result in large capital investment. Arguments for SMEs come from almost all corners of the development literature programs, particularly in the less developed countries (LDCs), tend to emphasise the role of SMEs, even if practical results differ from the rhetoric. (Carlos Nuno Castel-Branco. May, 2003) Therefore, SMEs seem to be an accepted wisdom within the development debate. It is believed that growth in SMEs should have a positive effect on the living conditions of the people, their income level, housing, utilities. Castel-Branco (2003), in a study, revealed that this is not always true because areas where SMEs are performing so well attracts public attention and many competitors begin to troop into the area. This subsequently leads to over congestion with its associated problems of which accommodation is not an exception. The structure of SMEs in Ghana as perhaps one of the main engines of growth can be viewed as rural and urban enterprises. For urban enterprises, they can either be planned or unplanned. The planned-urban enterprises are characterized by paid employees with registered offices whereas unplanned-urban enterprises are mostly confined to the home, open space, temporal wooden structures, and employment therein is family or apprentices oriented. In the recent pursuit of economic progress, Ghana as a developing country has generally come to recognize that the SME sector may well be the main driving force for growth, due to its entrepreneurial resources and employment opportunities. Nevertheless, the existing attempts to explore empirically the roles played by SME in the economic development of a nation are still somewhat ambiguous. This can be attributed, more or less, to the fact that when examining economic progress per se, economists have tended to ignore the industrial structure of the economy and the impact this can have on such development. The ambiguity of the role of SMEs has therefore necessitated the need for a study to be conducted to access the actual impact of the proliferation of SMEs on the inhabitants of the Medina community. 1.2 Problem Statement The small business sector is recognized as an integral component of economic development and a crucial element in the effort to lift countries out of poverty (Wolfenson, 2001). The dynamic role of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries as engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved has long been recognized. The growth of small scale businesses in Ghana so rapid, that it is now seen as a daily affair. Many Potential owners of SMEs move to areas where the feel they can succeed to set them up there. More so, many factors may contribute to the movement of people to settle at certain geographical areas. It is believed that the factors that influence migration include the need for peaceful and violent free environment, the need for fertile business locations, the desire for privacy, government policy and a host of others. Specifically, with reference to the above, the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region has experienced a noticeable growth and increase in the number movements into the area and for that matter SMEs increase in the last few years. It is important to mention that some research studies have been conducted to determine the real impact of migrations on host societies. In line with the above, this study sorts to assess the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the scio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. 1.3 Objectives: 1.3.1 Main Objective The main objective of this study is to assess the general impact of the plorefication of SMEs in Medina on the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives 1. To assess the nature and forms of SMEs in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men. 2. To identify the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and to rank them in order of importance. 3. Assess the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina. 4. To assess the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding. 5. To determine the factors that account for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community 6. To assess the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina 1.4 Research Questions The study shall provide answers to the following research questions: 1. What is the nature of SME operation in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men? 2. What are the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and which are ranked more importance? 3. What are the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina? 4. What are the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding? 5. What factors have accounted for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community? 6. What are the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina? 1.5 Justification of the Study It is difficult to analyze the performance, nature of operation and behavior of the SME sector in Ghana due to the lack of comprehensive data on them and their activities. The sector is not classified into sub-sectors and the last industrial survey was conducted in 1995 but covered only medium and large-scale industries. In respect of this, the justification of this study rests on the fact that, study will help provide information on the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. Furthermore, the study while provide vital information policy makers of the Medina municipality and all other stakeholders of the Medina community. Finally the study while produce information to will add on to existing literature for further studies in this area. 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study Due to time and resource constrains, this study is restricted particularly to the Medina community. The study focuses on the factors that account for the growth of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this change on the people of Medina among others. The study is limited in scope because it fails to cover the entire population of Ghana. The findings of this study may therefore lack generalizability as far as other communities in Ghana are concern. 1.7 Organization of the Study Chapter 1 deals with the background of the study, the problem statement, objectives of the study, justification of the study and organization of the study. Chapter 2 reviews both theoretical and empirical literatures on SMEs in general, in Ghana among others. Chapter 3 introduces the study area and describes the methodologies used to analyze the problems stated. It includes the methods used for data collection, and procedure for data analysis. Chapter 4 is devoted to presentation and discussion of results. Summary statistics of the variables used in the study are presented and discussed. Chapter 5 winds up this study drawing conclusions, their policy implications. Suggestions for future research based on the findings are made. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews works on small and medium enterprises in the world, Africa and Ghana. The state of SMEs in Ghana is reviewed here. Also, Works on performance and determinants of performance of SMEs are captured. Furthermore, a section of this chapter assesses the various methods of measuring performance of SMEs which while help open up the understanding of the state of SMEs in Medina. Finally, this chapter closes with some migration theories to help facilitate the comprehension of the factors that actually account for human migration, in this case migration to Medina. 2.2 Definitions and Concepts of SMEs There is no single, uniformly acceptable, definition of a small firm (Storey, 1994). Firms differ in their levels of capitalization, sales and employment. Hence, definitions that employ measures of size (number of employees, turnover, profitability, net worth, etc.) when applied to one sector could lead to all firms being classified as small, while the same size definition when applied to a different sector could lead to a different result. The first attempt to overcome this definition problem was by the Bolton Committee (1971) when they formulated an â€Å"economic† and a â€Å"statistical† definition. Under the economic definition, a firm is regarded as small if it meets the following three criteria: i. It has a relatively small share of their market place; ii. It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; iii. It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. The Committee also devised a â€Å"statistical† definition to be used in three main areas: a. Quantifying the size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc.; b. Comparing the extent to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; c. Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. Thus, the Bolton Committee employed different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. 2.2.1 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Economic† Definition of SMEs A number of weaknesses were identified with the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"economic† and `statistical’ definitions. First, the economic definition which states that a small business is managed by its owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formal management structure, is incompatible with its statistical definition of small manufacturing firms which could have up to 200 employees. As firm size increases, owners no longer make principal decisions but devolve responsibility to a team of managers. For example, it is unlikely for a firm with hundred employees to be managed in a personalized way, suggesting that the `economic’ and `statistical’ definitions are incompatible. Another shortcoming of the Bolton Committee’s economic definition is that it considers small firms to be operating in a perfectly competitive market. However, the idea of perfect competition may not apply here; many small firms occupy `niches’ and provide a highly specialized service or product in a geographically isolated area and do not perceive any clear competition (Wynarczyk et al, 1993; Storey, 1994). Alternatively, Wynarczyk et al (1993) identified the characteristics of the small firm other than size. They argued that there are three ways of differentiating between small and large firms. The small firm has to deal with: (a) Uncertainty associated with being a price taker; (b) Limited customer and product base; (c) Uncertainty associated with greater diversity of objectives as compared with large firms. As Storey (1994) stated, there are three key distinguishing features between large and small firms. Firstly, the greater external uncertainty of the environment in which the small firm operates and the greater internal consistency of its motivations and actions. Secondly, they have a different role in innovation. Small firms are able to produce something marginally different, in terms of product or service, which differs from the standardized product or service provided by large firms. A third area of distinction between small and large firms is the greater likelihood of evolution and change in the smaller firm; small firms that become large undergo a number of stage changes. 2.2.2 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Statistical† Definition of SMEs (i) No single definition or criteria was used for â€Å"smallness†, (number of employees, turnover, ownership and assets were used instead) (ii) Three different upper limits of turnover were specified for the different sectors and two different upper limits were identified for number of employees. (iii) Comparing monetary units over time requires construction of index numbers to take account of price changes. Moreover, currency fluctuations make international comparison more difficult. (iv) The definition considered the small firm sector to be homogeneous; however, firms may grow from small to medium and in some cases to large. It was against this background that the European Commission (EC) coined the term `Small and Medium Enterprises (SME)’. The SME sector is made up of three components: (i) Firms with 0 to 9 employees – micro enterprises (ii) 10 to 99 employees – small enterprises (iii) 100 to 499 employees – medium enterprises. Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises, which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firm’s upper limit is more appropriate given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous, that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. However, the EC definition is too all embracing for a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms that are more appropriate to their particular `target’ group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile unless size is a factor that influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the impact of a credit programme o n a targeted group (also refer to Storey, 1994). 2.2.3 Alternative Definitions of SMEs World Bank since 1976 – Firms with fixed assets (excluding land) less than US$ 250,000 in value are Small Scale Enterprises. Grindle et al (1988) – Small scale enterprises are firms with less than or equal to 25 permanent members and with fixed assets (excludingland) worth up to US$ 50,000. USAID in the 1990s – Firms with less than 50 employees and at least half the output is sold (also refer to Mead, 1984). UNIDO’s Definition for Developing Countries: Large – firms with 100+ workers Medium – firms with 20 – 99 workers Small – firms with 5 – 19 workers Micro – firms with < 5 workers UNIDO’s Definition for Industrialized Countries: Large – firms with 500+ workers Medium – firms with 100 – 499 workers Small – firms with ≠¤99 workers From the various definitions above, it can be said that there is no unique definition for a small and medium scale enterprise thus, an operational definition is required. 2.2.4 Definitions SMEs in Ghana Small Scale enterprises have been variously defined, but the most commonly used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise. In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources. As contained in its Industrial Statistics, The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with less than 10 employees as Small Scale Enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as Medium and Large-Sized Enterprises. Ironically, The GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as Small and Medium Enterprises (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). An alternate criterion used in defining small and medium enterprises is the value of fixed assets in the organization. However, the National Board of Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the `fixed asset and number of employees’ criteria. It defines a Small Scale Enterprise as one with not more than 9 workers, has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 million Cedis (US$ 9506, using 1994 exchange rate) (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC) on the other hand uses a 10 million Cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. A point of caution is that the process of valuing fixed assets in itself poses a problem. Secondly, the continuous depreciation in the exchange rate often makes such definitions out-dated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Steel and Webster (1990), Osei et al (1993) in defining Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana used an employment cut off point of 30 employees to indicate Small Scale Enterprises. The latter however dis-aggregated small scale enterprises into 3 categories: (i) micro -employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small, those employing 6-9 people; (iii) small -between 10 and 29 employees. 2.3 Why Small and Medium Scale Enterprises? The choice of small and medium scale enterprises within the industrial sector for this study is based on the following propositions (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). (a) Large Scale Industry (i) Have not been an engine of growth and a good provider of employment; (ii) Already receive enormous support through general trade, finance, tax policy and direct subsidies; (b) Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (i) Mobilize funds which otherwise would have been idle; (ii) Have been recognized as a seed-bed for indigenous entrepreneurship; (iii) Are labour intensive, employing more labour per unit of capital than large enterprises; (iv) Promote indigenous technological know-how; (vii) Are able to compete (but behind protective barriers); (viii) Use mainly local resources, thus have less foreign exchange requirements; (ix) Cater for the needs of the poor and; (x) Adapt easily to customer requirements (flexible specialization), (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). 2.4.0 The Role and Characteristics of SMEs 2.4.1 Role of SMEs in Developing Countries Small-scale rural and urban enterprises have been one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries. It is estimated that SMEs employ 22% of the adult population in developing countries (Daniels & Ngwira, 1992; Daniels & Fisseha, 1993; Fisseha, 1992; Fisseha & McPherson, 1991; Gallagher & Robson, 1995). However, some authors have contended that the job creating impact of small scale enterprises is a statistical flaw; it does not take into account offsetting factors that make the net impact more modest (Biggs, Grindle & Snodgrass, 1988). It is argued that increases in employment of Small and Medium Enterprises are not always associated with increases in productivity. Nevertheless, the important role performed by these enterprises cannot be overlooked. Small firms have some advantages over their large-scale competitors. They are able to adapt more easily to market conditions given their broadly skilled technologies. However, narrowing the analysis down to developing countries raises the following puzzle: Do small-scale enterprises have a dynamic economic role? Due to their flexible nature, SMEs are able to withstand adverse economic conditions. They are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore, have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier & Seibel, 1987; Liedholm & Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). Small-scale enterprises (SSEs) perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to the more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Because of their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued that small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus, facilitating long term economic growth. 2.4.2 Characteristics of SMEs in Ghana A distinguishing feature of SMEs from larger firms is that the latter have direct access to international and local capital markets whereas the former are excluded because of the higher intermediation costs of smaller projects. In addition, SMEs face the same fixed cost as Large Scale Enterprises (LSEs) in complying with regulations but have limited capacity to market products abroad. SMEs in Ghana can be categorised into urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into `organised’ and `unorganised’ enterprises. The organised ones tend to have paid employees with a registered office whereas the unorganised category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home and employ little or in some cases no salaried workers. They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production of local crops. The major activities within this sector include:- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical based products and mechanics ( Liedholm & Mead, 1987; Osei et al, 1993, World Bank, 1992). It is interesting to note that small-scale enterprises make better use of scarce resources than large-scale enterprises. Research in Ghana and many other countries have shown that capital productivity is often higher in SMEs than is the case with LSEs (Steel, 1977). The reason for this is not difficult to see, SMEs are labour intensive with very small amount of capital invested. Thus, they tend to witness high capital productivity, which is an economically sound investment. Thus, it has been argued that promoting the SME sector in developing countries will create more employment opportunities, lead to a more equitable distribution of income, and will ensure increased productivity with better technology (Steel & Webster, 1990). 2.5 SME Approaches There are several approaches or theories to entrepreneurship and small and medium enterprises. For the purpose of this study, the research team will dwell on three major theories. These include: venture opportunity, Agency Theory and Theory of Equity Funds 2.5.1 The Venture Opportunity The venture opportunity school of thought focuses on the opportunity aspect of venture development. The search for idea sources, the development of concepts; and the implementation of venture opportunities are the important interest areas for this school. Creativity and market awareness are viewed as essential. Additionally, according to this school of thought, developing the right idea at the right time for the right market niche is the key to entrepreneurial success. Major proponents include: N Krueger 1993, Long W. & McMullan 1984. Another development from this school of thought is what is described by McMullan (1984) as â€Å"corridor principle’’. This principle outlines that, giving prior attention to new pathways or opportunities as they arise and implementing the necessary steps for action are key factors in business development. The maxim that â€Å"preparation meeting opportunity, equals â€Å"luck† underlines this corridor principle. Proponents of this school of thought believe that proper preparation in the interdisciplinary business segments will enhance the ability to recognise good venture opportunities. Comparing the study with the above theory, the question that arises is: What are the factors or opportunities that have led to the proliferation of small and medium scale enterprises in Medina Township? Is it due to a particular market niche, creativity or market awareness? If so, then what socio-economic impact do they have on the people of Medina Township? 2.5.2 Agency Theory Agency theory deals with the people who own a business enterprise and all others who have interests in it, for example managers, banks, creditors, family members, and employees. The agency theory postulates that the day to day running of a business enterprise is carried out by managers as agents who have been engaged by the owners of the business as principals who are also known as shareholders. The theory is on the notion of the principle of ‘two-sided transactions’ which holds that any financial transactions involves two parties, both acting in their own best interests, but with different expectations. Major proponents of this theory include: Eisenhardt 1989, Emery et al.1991 and JH Davis – 1997. These Proponents of agency theory assume that agents will always have a personal interest which conflicts the interest of the principal. This is usually referred to as the Agency problem. 2.5.3 Theory of Equity Funds Equity is also known as owners’ equity, capital, or net worth. Costand et al (1990) suggests that ‘larger firms will use greater levels of debt financing than small firms. This implies that larger firms will rely relatively less on equity financing than do smaller firms’. According to the pecking order framework, the small enterprises have two problems when it comes to equity funding [McMahon et al. (1993, pp153)]: 1) Small enterprises usually do not have the option of issuing additional equity to the public. 2) Owner-managers are strongly averse to any dilution of their ownership interest and control. This way they are unlike the managers of large concerns who usually have only a limited degree of control and limited, if any, ownership interest, and are therefore prepared to recognize a broader range of funding options. Modern financial management is not the ultimate answer to every whim and caprice. However, it could be argued that there is some food for thought for SMEs concerning every concept. For example Access to Capital is really eye-opener for SMEs in Ghana to carve their way into sustaining their growth. 2.6 Policies for Promoting SMEs in Ghana Small-scale enterprise promotion in Ghana was not impressive in the 1960s. Dr. Nkrumah (President of the First Republic) in his modernization efforts emphasized state participation but did not encourage the domestic indigenous sector. The local entrepreneurship was seen as a potential political threat. To worsen the situation, the deterioration in the Balance of Payments in the 1980s and the overvaluation of the exchange rate led to reduce capacity utilization in the import dependent large-scale sector. Rising inflation and falling real wages also forced many formal sector employees into secondary self-employment in an attempt to earn a decent income. As the economy declined, large-scale manufacturing employment stagnated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). According to Steel and Webster (1991), small scale and self-employment grew by 2.9% per annum (ten times as many jobs as large scale employment) but their activities accounted for only a third of the value added. It was in the light of the above that the government of Ghana started promoting small-scale enterprises. They were viewed as the mechanism through which a transition from state-led economy to a private oriented developmental strategy could be achieved. Thus the SME sector’s role was re-defined to include the following (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000): (i) Assisting the state in reducing its involvement in direct production (ii) Absorbing labour from the state sector, given the relatively labour intensive nature of small scale enterprises, and; (iii) Developing indigenous entrepreneurial and managerial skills needed for sustained industrialization. 2.6.1 Government and Institutional Support to SMEs To enable the sector perform its role effectively, the following technical, institutional and financial supports were put in place by government. (i) Government Government, in an attempt to strengthen the response of the private sector to economic reforms undertook a number of measures in 1992. Prominent among them is the setting up of the Private Sector Advisory Group and the abolition of the Manufacturing Industries Act, 1971 (Act 356) that repealed a number of price control laws, and The Investment Code of 1985 (PNDC Law 116), which seeks to promote joint ventures between foreign and local investors. In addition to the above, a Legislative Instrument on Immigrant Quota, which grants automatic immigrant quota for investors, has been enacted. Besides, certain Technology Transfer Regulations have been introduced. Government also provided equipment leasing, an alternative and flexible source of long term financing of plant and equipment for enterprises that cannot afford their own. A Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme was also set up for entrepreneurs who have inadequate or no collateral and has limited access to bank credit. To complement these efforts, a Rural Finance Project aimed at providing long-term credit to small-scale farmers and artisans was set up. In 1997, government proposed the establishment of an Export Development and Investment Fund (EDIF), operational under the Exim Guarantee Company Scheme of the Bank of Ghana. This was in aid of industrial and export services within the first quarter of 1998. To further improve the industrial sector, according to the 1998 Budget Statement, specific attention was to be given to the following industries for support in accessing the EDIF for rehabilitation and retooling: Textiles/Garments; Wood and Wood Processing; Food and Food Processing and Packaging. It was also highlighted that government would support industries with export potential to overcome any supply-based difficulty by accessing EDIF and rationalize the tariff regime in a bid to improve their export competitiveness. In addition, a special monitoring mechanism has been developed at the Ministry of Trade and Industries. In a bid to improve trade and investment, particularly in the industrial sector, trade and investment facilitating measures were put in place. Visas for all categories of investors and tourists were issued on arrival at the ports of entry while the Customs Excise and Preventive Service at the ports were made proactive, operating 7-days a week. The government continued supporting programmes aimed at skills training, registration and placement of job seekers, training and re-training of redeployees. This resulted in a 5% rise in enrolment in the various training institutes such as The National Vocational and Training Institute (NVTI), Opportunity Industrialization Centres (OIC), etc. As at the end of 1997, 65,830 out of 72,000 redeployees who were re-trained under master craftsmen have been provided with tools and have become self-employed. (ii) Institutions The idea of SME promotion has been in existence since 1970 though very little was done at the time. Key institutions were set up to assist SMEs and prominent among them was The Office of Business Promotion, now the present Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC). It aims at assisting Ghanaian businessmen to enter into fields where foreigners mainly operated but which became available to Ghanaians after the ‘Alliance Compliance Order’ in 1970. GEDC also had packages for strengthening small-scale industry in general, both technically and financially. The Economic Recovery Programme instituted in 1983 has broadened the institutional support for SMEs. The National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) has been established within the then Ministry of Industry, Science and Technology now (Ministry of Science and Technology) to address the needs of small businesses. The NBSSI established an Entrepreneurial Development Programme, intended to train and assist persons with entrepreneurial abilities into self-employment. In 1987, the industrial sector also witnessed the coming into operation of the Ghana Appropriate Technology Industrial Service (GRATIS). It was to supervise the operations of Intermediate Technology Transfer Units (ITTUs) in the country. GRATIS aims at upgrading small scale industrial concerns by transferring appropriate technology to small scale and informal industries at the grass root level. ITTUs in the regions are intended to develop the engineering abilities of small scale manufacturing and service industries engaged in vehicle repairs and other related trades. They are also to address the needs of non-engineering industries. So far, 6 ITTUs have been set up in Cape Coast, Ho, Kumasi, Sunyani, Tamale and Tema. (iii) Financial Assistance Access to credit has been one of the main bottlenecks to SME development. Most SMEs lack the necessary collateral to obtain bank loans. To address this issue, the Central Bank of Ghana has established a credit guarantee scheme to underwrite loans made by Commercial Banks to small-scale enterprises. Unfortunately, the scheme did not work out as expected. It was against this background that the Bank of Ghana obtained a US$ 28 million credit from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank for the establishment of a Fund for Small and Medium Enterprises Development (FUSMED). Under the Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Cost of Adjustment (PAMSCAD), a revolving fund of US$ 2 million was set aside to assist SMEs. This aspect is too scanty in the midst of the abundant information, especially with reference to Ghana. 2.7 Gender and Small Business Performance Until more recently gender differences in small business performance remained largely unaddressed by social scientists (Greene, Hart, Gatewood, Brush, & Carter, 2003). The majority of studies either disregarded gender as a variable of interest or excluded female subjects from their design (Du Rietz & Henrekson, 2000). However, it is generally accepted that male and female owner-managers behave differently and that these behavioral differences influence their performance (Brush, 1992), but these differences have been recognized but not fully explained (Brush & Hisrich 2000). A comparison of performance of male and female owner-managers in Java, Indonesia showed that female-owned businesses tend to be less oriented towards growth compared to male-owned businesses (Singh, Reynolds, & Muhammad, 2001). Boden & Nucci (2000) investigated start-ups in the retail and service industries and found that the mean survival rate for male owned businesses was four to six percent higher than for female owned businesses. Loscocco, Robinson, Hall & Allen (1991) in their study of small businesses in the New England region of the USA found that both sales volume and income levels were lower for female- than for male-owned businesses. In a longitudinal study of 298 small firms in the United Kingdom (UK), of which 67 were female owned, Johnson & Storey (1994) observed that whilst female owner-managers had more stable enterprises than their male counterparts, on average the sales turnover for female owners were lower than for male owners. Brush (1992) suggests that women perform less on quantitative financial measures such as jobs created, sales turnover and profitability because they pursue intrinsic goals such as independence, and the flexibility to combine family and work commitments rather than financial gain. In contrast to the above findings, Du Rietz and Henrekson (2000) reported that female-owned businesses were just as successful as their male counterparts when size and sector are controlled. In his study of small and medium firms in Australia, Watson (2002), after controlling for the effect of industry sector, age of the business, and the number of days of operation, also reported no significant differences in performance between the male- controlled and female-controlled firms.